Thomas Hall’s Rhetorica Sacra

Since the sacred Scripture abounds with tropes and figures of all sorts, and is like a pleasant garden bedecked with flowers, or a rich garment beset with pearls, or a fruitful field, full of precious treasures, I conceived it might be time well spent, to dig into those sacred minerals, for the better finding out of those metaphors, metonymies, synecdoches, etc., which lie hid there: for the bare reading of the Scriptures, without searching into its heavenly mysteries and meaning, is like the coming into a treasury, wherein we see many costly things folded up, and some ends appearing out, but when they be all uncovered, then doth their glory more affect us for the present, and leave in us a deep impression of their excellency. Besides, the ignorance of rhetoric is one ground of many errors amongst us, as will appear in the opening of the tropes, where you have not only bare instances, but many texts cleared and expounded, etc. If it may any way be serviceable to thee, give God the glory, and let the weak instrument have thy prayers.

Anadiplôsis, when a word that is used in the end of one sentence, is repeated in the beginning of the next, as Psalm 122:2-3: “our feet shall stand in thy gates O Jerusalem,” “Jerusalem is built,” etc. So in verse 5, there are “the thrones of judgment, the thrones of,” etc. Psalm 145:18: “the Lord is nigh to all that call upon him, to all that call upon him in truth.” So Deuteronomy 8:7: “the Lord bringeth thee into a good land, a land of brooks.” So Isaiah 30:9, Jeremiah 2:13, and 12:11, Luke 7.31, 32.

Anaphora, when the same word is repeated in the beginning of sentences, as Psalm 29:3-10: “the voice of the Lord is upon the waters,” “the voice of the Lord,” etc. So Psalm 27:1 and 118:2-4 and 124:1-2 and 148:1-4 and 150:1-5. So Jeremiah 50.35-37: “a sword is upon the Chaldeans, a sword is upon the liars.” Jeremiah 51:21-23, Ezekiel 27:12, 15-18, Romans 1:21-23 – “thou,” “thou,” “thou;” 2 Corinthians 11:20 and 1 Corinthians 1:20, Philippians 4:8, and Amos 1:3, 6 & 9.

Antimetabole, is an inversion or change of words, as 1 Corinthians 11:8: “Man is not of the woman, but the woman of the man.” So 2 Corinthians 12:14: “children ought not to lay up for their parents, but parents for their children.”

Antitheton, is the illustration of a thing by its opposite, as Isaiah 5:4, 7: “I looked for grapes, and behold wild grapes;” “for judgment, and behold oppression; we looked for light, but behold obscurity; for brightness, but we walk in darkness.” 

Anthropopathia, is a figure very frequent in Scripture, as when it speaks of God after the manner of men, and by bodily things sets forth his divine excellencies. Thus passions, as joy, anger, grief, etc. are attributed to God. Thus he is said to have eyes, signifying his omniscience; a hand, signifying his power; wings, to show his care and protection of his people; nostrils, noting his indignation, etc.

Aposiópesis, when out of an holy anger or vehemency, we cut off some word or part of a sentence, which yet is understood, as Psalm 6:3: “But thou O Lord, how long? “ – that is to say: “How long will thou delay to send me help and succor?” So Luke 19:42: “O if thou hadst known!” – that is to say: “How happy it would have been for thee, if thou hadst known.” So 1 Kings 21:7: “Dost thou now govern the Kingdom of Israel? Arise.” – that is to say: “Art not thou a king? Then mayest thou do what pleaseth thyself, therefore arise speedily and be doing.” Remember this was the counsel of a Jezebel. So Psalm 95:11 and Hebrews 3:11: “To whom I sware in my wrath if they enter into my rest” – that is to say: “they shall never enter into my rest, if they come there, let me not be God, or let me not be true.” So Psalm 89:35. So 2 Corinthians 12:6: “I will say the truth – but now I forbear.” So Hosea 8:1: “trumpet to mouth” (Hebrew) – that is to say: “Set the trumpet to thy mouth.” “As an eagle” (Hebrew) – that is to say: “the enemy shall fly swiftly, as an eagle” (Isaiah 1:13). I cannot bear your sin. Vehemen issimam indignationem repraesentat.

Apostrophe, is the turning of a speech from one person to another, many times abruptly. Thus in Psalm 2:9, the prophet sets forth God’s judgments against the enemies of Christ: then in verse 10, he presently turns his speech to the great ones: “Be wise now therefore, O ye Kings.” So in Isaiah 1:2, the prophet finding the people to be rebellious, turns his speech to the inanimate creatures, “Hear O ye heavens, and hearken O earth.” So Genesis 49:18, Judges 5:21, Psalm 109:21.

Asyndeton, or Dialyton, has no copulative, as 1 Corinthians 13:4-6: “charity suffereth long,” “charity envieth not,” etc. So 1 Thessalonians 5:16-22, Romans 3:11-16, Psalm 66:1-3, Romans 1:29, 2 Timothy 3:2.

Catachresis, an improper kind of speech, as Exodus 20:22: “Ye have seen that I have talked with you, that is: ye have heard the Lord speak.” So Exodus 23:19: “Thou shalt not seethe a kid in her mother’s milk, mother is not so proper a term with us, for a dumb creature.” So Isaiah 64:1: “O that thou wouldst rend the heavens and come down!” He speaks of God after the manner of men: if a man were in heaven, and should descend, he having a body, which is a gross substance, must needs divide and rend the heavens, but God being a most pure spirit, passeth through all things, without any dividing or rending; yet is there in these divine condescensions of speech, a singular excellency; the Lord in his goodness, considering our weakness, doth even stammer with us, the better to instruct us. Thus teachers are said to have a voice, Psalm 6:8. and 39:12, the Lord hath heard the voice of my weeping.

Climax, or gradation is frequent in Scripture, when the succeeding clauses transcend each other, as Matthew 7:7-8: “Ask, seek, knock;” – it is not a simple repetition, but a gradation. So Romans 5:3-5: “Tribulation worketh patience, patience, experience; and experience hope.” So Romans 8:30: “Whom he did predestinate, them he also called; whom he called, them he justified, and whom he justified, them he glorified.” So Hosea 2:21-22: “I will hear the heavens, and they shall hear the earth,” etc. So Romans 10:14-15: “How shall they call on him, on whom they have not believed? and how shall they believe in him of whom they have not heard? and how shall they hear without a preacher,” etc. So James 1:2-4: “Temptations prove us, probation brings forth patience, and patience helps on towards perfection.” So 2 Peter 1:5-7: “add to your faith, virtue, and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience,” etc. So Judges 5.30: (1) A work of divers colors is excellent. (2) A work of divers colors of the needle, is more. (3) Wrought on both sides, that's most of all. So 1 Corinthians 11:3: “The head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is the man, and the head of Christ is God.” So John 1:1-5.

Ellipsis, the defect or wanting of a word, as Exodus 4:25. “Zipporah took a sharp” – {stone} or {knife} is understood. So Isaiah 1:13: “I cannot iniquity,” that is: I cannot bear iniquity. So Hosea 8:1 – see before: Aposiópesis.

Enallage or Heteresis is, 

(1) Of the gender, sometimes the feminine gender is put for the masculine, thus effeminate men are called women, (Isaiah 3:12). 

(2) Of the person, thus one person is often put for another, as the second for the third, and the third for the first. 

(3) Of the number, thus the singular number is often put for the plural, and so on the contrary.

Epanalepsis, when the same word is put in the beginning, and the ending of a sentence, as Philippians 4:4: “Rejoice in the Lord always, and again I say, Rejoice.” So Psalm 8:1, 9, and 46:1, 11, the same sentence is put in the beginning and ending of the Psalm. So 1 Corinthians 3:21-22: “All things are yours, whether things present, or things to come, All is yours.” So Romans 15:4: “whatsoever things were written aforetime, were written for our learning.” So 1 Corinthians 14:15: “I will pray with the spirit, and with the understanding also. I will sing with the spirit, and with the understanding also. 2 Corinthians 4:3: “If our gospel be hid, to them that perish it is hid.” So it runs in the original.

Epanodos, when the same word is repeated in the beginning and middle; or in the middle & end, as Psalm 114:3-6, Ezekiel 32:16: “this is the lamentation, where with they shall lament her, the daughters of the nations shall lament her, they shall lament for her,” etc. John 8:47: “He that is of God, heareth God’s word, ye therefore hear them not, because ye are not of God.” Romans 7:19: “The good that I would, I do not; but the evil that I would not, that I do.” Galatians 2:20: “I live, yet not I, but Christ liveth in me, and the life which I now live, I live by faith.” So 2 Corinthians 2.10, 15, 16.

Epanorikósis, or correction, is the reinforcement of the clause last uttered, by the subsequent. So Galatians 3.4. and 2.20: “Have ye suffered so many things in vain? if it be yet in vain.” So Luke 11:27: “When the woman cried, blessed is the womb that bare thee,” Christ converts [this in] verse 8: “Yea rather blessed are they that hear the word of God, and do it.” So 1 Kings 14:14: “The Lord shall raise up a king, who shall cut off the house of Jeroboam that day; but what, even now?” So Romans 8:34 and 1 Corinthians 15:10: “I have labored more abundantly than they all, yet not I, but the grace of God which was in me.”

Epistrophe, when there is the like ending in sentences, as Psalm 136, per totum: “for his mercy endures forever.” Ezekiel 33:25-26: “And shall ye possess the land? Ye stand upon your sword, etc. and shall ye possess the Land?” So Joel 2:26-27: “And my people shall never be ashamed, and ye shall eat in plenty, etc. and my people shall never be ashamed.” So Amos 4:6, 8-11, “yet have ye not returned to me, saith the Lord,” etc. So Haggai 2:8-9 and 1 Corinthians 13:11: “When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child.” So 2 Corinthians 11:22: “Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I.”

Epizeuxis, when the same word is doubled by way of emphasis, as Isaiah 40:1: “Comfort ye, comfort ye my people.” Isaiah 51:12: “I, even I am he that comforts you.” Isaiah 38:19: “The living, the living, he shall praise thee.” Matthew 23:37: “O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, which killest the prophets.” The name is doubled, to express the great affection of the speaker. So 2 Samuel 18:33: “O my son Absalom, my son, my son,” etc. Thus Deborah quickens herself. Judges 5:12: “Awake, awake, Deborah,” etc. So Isaiah 51:9. and Ezekiel 21:9, 27: “I will overturn, overturn, overturn it,” that is: “I will certainly overturn it.”

And this is done sometimes by way of amplification, as Psalm 145:18, the Lord is nigh to all that call upon him, even to all that call upon him in truth. So Psalm 68:13: “the kings of armies do fly, do fly [fugiunt, fugiūnt] – that is to say: they fled amain [with great haste]. So Joel 3:14: “multitudes, multitudes,” that is: great multitudes.

3. By way of transition, as Hosea 2.21. I will hear the Heavens, and the Heavens shall hear the Earth, and the Earth shall hear the Corn, etc.

Euphemismus, is a fair kind of speech, as Genesis 4.1. Adam knew Eve. See the like modest expression in Numbers 31:17, Matthew 1:25, and Luke 1:34. Thus incest and adultery are sometimes expressed by a modest term of uncovering the nakedness (Leviticus 18:6. and 20:11, 17, Ezekiel 22:10). Thus “to sanctify” is put for “to defile” (Deuteronomy 22:9). So a harlot is called Kedesuh, “a holy woman” in Genesis 38:21 by a contrary meaning, as being most unholy and unclean. Thus words sometimes have contrary significations, as Barac signifies to bless or curse. Chesed signifies piety or impiety in Leviticus 20:17, but in Psalm 106:1, it signifies goodness.

Exclamatio is that whereby we express our affection. It is sometimes used:

(1) Per modum optationis, when we earnestly desire a thing, as 1 Chronicles 11:17: “Oh that one would give me of the water of the well of Bethlehem!” (Isaiah 64:1) “O that thou wouldst rend the heavens, and come down!” Psalm 84:1.

(2) Per modum admirationis, by way of admiration, as Romans 11:33: “O the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God!”

(3) Per modum objurgationis, by way of reproof, as Galatians 3:1: “O foolish Galatians, who hath bewitched you?” So Acts 7:51-52.

(4) Per modum Dolentis, by way of lamentation, Romans 7:24: “Oh wretched man that I am,” etc.

Exegesis, it is usual with the Scripture, having said a thing in one member of a sentence, to repeat the same again, by way of explication or confirmation in the later part as Psalm 6:8-9 and 33:10. In 2 Kings 20:3, we read “Remember O Lord, how I have walked before thee, in truth;” – what's that? – “and with a perfect heart, and have done that which is right in thy sight.” So Isaiah 3:4, 9 and 14:13-14, John 1:3, and Romans 11:7-8: “God hath given them the spirit of slumber,” – what's that? – “eyes that they should not see, and ears that they should not hear.” So in 2 Timothy 3:1, he tells us in general, that the last days shall be perilous, then in verses 2-5, he tells what particular vices should reign, and make the times so perilous. Yea, such is the goodness of God to his people, that when the Scripture has spoken anything darkly, it often tends to join some plain thing to give light to it, such as Isaiah 51:1 – what is somewhat dark in that verse, is presently explained in the second. So ibn Deuteronomy 7:3, they must not match with idolaters, – why so? (verses 4 and 6) – first, because by this means, they will draw you to worship their gods. Secondly, this will provoke God to anger. Thirdly, you are a holy people, sequestered for God’s special service, etc. Thus often, not always, we have the sense at hand; yet sometimes we must search and go farther off to find out the sense of some places, which we read.

Hendiadys, when one thing is divided into two, as Matthew 4:16: “in the region and shadow of death,” for the shady region of death. So Matthew 20:20. “Worshiping” and “desiring,” that is: desiring by worshipping.

Hypallage, when the order of the words is changed, as Job 17:4: “Thou hast hid their heart from understanding, that is: thou hast hid understanding from their heart.” So Isaiah 1:3: “The ass knows his master’s crib, or, he knows the master who feeds him in his crib.” So Hebrews 3:13, through the deceitfulness of sin, that is: by deceitful sin.

Hysterologia, or Hysteron-Proteron, is a placing of that before, which should be after, and some things after, which should be before. The penmen of Scripture do not always observe the just order of things, but the truth of the history; they set them down, in that order, in which they came to their minds, and not in that order, which they fell out in. Psalm 7:14: “He travelleth with iniquity, and hath conceived mischief. Here the birth is set before the conception.” [See more in Rule 27]

Hyperbole, is twofold. 

(1) Auxesis, when we increase the signification of a speech. So Genesis 29:31: Jacob is said to hate Leah, when he only neglected her, and loved her less. So Matthew 10:37 compared with Luke 14:26 and John 12:25. We must not simply hate father, mother, life, etc., but comparatively, when they come in competition with Christ. So Proverbs 13:24: “he that spares the rod, hates his son,” that is: he doth not truly love him, that lets him go astray to his own destruction, and so acts the part of one that hates him. Thus Genesis 13:16: Abraham's seed “shall be as the dust of the earth, and stars of heaven,” that is: his posterity shall be very many. So Psalm 51:7 “whiter than snow;” Lamentations 4:7: “whiter than milk, more ruddy than rubies.” So 2 Samuel 1:23: “swifter than eagles, stronger than lions;” 2 Samuel 2:18: “swift as a roe;” Isaiah 49:2: “I have labored in vain yet not altogether in vain, though for little good.” So Genesis 11:4 and 13:10; Isaiah 7:15, 25; Joel 3:18: “the hills shall flow with milk, and the mountains with wine.” So Canaan was styled “a land flowing with milk and honey” in Numbers 13:27, 32-33; “cities fenced up to heaven” in Deuteronomy 9:1. So Psalm 107:26: “they mount up to heaven, and go down to the depths,” that is: they are sorely tossed up and down. Galatians 4:15: “Ye would have plucked out your own eyes, and have given them me;” it is a proverbial speech, that is to say: “You would have parted with your dearest things, to have done me good.” John 21:25: “the whole world would not contain the books,” that is: they would be very many. John 12:19: “the whole world goeth after him,” that is: many follow him. Luke 18:1: “Pray always,” that is: be constant and persevere in the duty. Matthew 6:3, Acts 2:5, Matthew 19:24: “It's easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle.” [See more, Rule 19.]

(2) Meiósis, Litote, Tapinósis ; when less is spoken, and more is meant. Proverbs 3.11. despise not the Lord’s correction, that is: highly esteem it. Romans 2:4: “Despise not the riches of his goodness,” that is: prize it highly. Malachi 2:14: “she is thy companion,” that is: thy chiefest and choicest companion. Hebrews 13:4: “whoremongers and adulterers God will judge,” that is: he will plague them here, and condemn them hereafter. Hebrews 10:38: “my soul shall take no pleasure in him,” that is: I greatly abhor him. Psalm 105:15: “Touch not mine anointed,” that is: hurt them not. 1 Samuel 24:14: “whom dost thou pursue, a dead dog, a flea?”, that is: a poor, weak, contemptible person. Matthew 7:23: “Depart from me, I know you not,” that is: “I detest you, and will forever punish you.” Mark 3:29: “shall never be forgiven,” that is: shall be eternally punished. Matthew 12:20: “a bruised reed he will not break,” that is: he will cherish and preserve it. Psalm 5:4-5: “thou art a God that takest no pleasure in wickedness,” that is: thou greatly hatest it. John 11:11: “Lazarus sleeps,” that is: is dead. Leviticus 26:36: “Thou shalt fly at the shaking of a leaf.” Romans 4:19: “Not weak in faith, that is: very strong in faith.” Revelation 12:11: “They loved not their lives unto the death, that is: they exposed their lives to all danger, for the cause of Christ.” 1 Corinthians 10:5 “With many of them, God was not well pleased, that is: he was highly displeased.” [See more, Rule 18.]

Insinuation, is a holy rhetorical winding ourselves into men's affections; sometimes by loving and sweet compellations, as Romans 12:1: “I beseech you brethren.” Sometimes by appeal, as 1 Corinthians 11:13. “Judge in yourselves is it comely.” Sometimes by anticipation, as Acts 26:27: “Believest thou the prophets? I know thou believest:” – he would even persuade him, that he believed, and verse 29: “I would to God that not only thou, but that all that hear me this day, were both almost, and altogether such as I am, except these bonds:” they yet knew not that bonds and suffering for Christ, was a great honor, and therefore he puts in this exception.

Ironia: ironic, taunting speeches may lawfully be used, as occasion serves.

(1) God himself used them in Genesis 3:22. "The man is become as one of us" - as one of the Trinity, whereby God declares his great disdain of their affectation of an impossible preeminence in being like to God, which is to say:  "By his sin he is become most unlike to us. See how well Satan hath performed his promise to man, is not he become like one of us? And hath not he gained a goodly measure of knowledge, both of good and evil?" So Judges 10:14. "Go, cry to the gods which ye have chosen." It is an ironic upbraiding them for their idolatry, which they found so comfortless, in their greatest need, their idols being no way able to deliver them.  So in Isaiah 14:4, 8-9, God himself teaches his people to deride the proud King of Babylon.

(2) Christ used it in Matthew 26:45: "sleep on," which is to say: "Go to now, sleep on, take your rest if ye can, behold a perilous time is at hand, wherein ye shall have little list or leisure to sleep."

(3) Elijah used it to the worshippers of Baal in 1 Kings 18:27. He mocks them, and bids them cry aloud to their drowsy or busy god, peradventure their Baal was asleep, or in a journey, etc. So Micaiah bids Ahab "go up and prosper," which is to say: "go up and perish," 1 Kings 22.15. So Job (17:2) taunts at his false friends, in an ironic expression: "No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you, which is to say: "In your own conceit, there are no men in the world but you. No doubt but reason hath left us, and is given wholly unto you; yea wisdom is so tied to your persons, that her conservation and mine depends on yours." So Amos 4:4-5: "Come to Bethel, and transgress at Gilgal, multiply transgressions," etc., which is to say: "Since by no means ye will be reclaimed, but are desperately set on sin; go on, and fill up the measure of your sin." Thus Solomon, without any breach of charity, or stain of holiness, checks the young man's folly [by saying in] Ecclesiastes 11:9: "Rejoice O young man, etc. but know," etc. By an ironic concession, he bids him rejoice and take his pleasure, etc., and then marries all with a stinging but, in the end.  So Paul with a holy scoff, derides the Corinthians in 1 Corinthians 4.8, 10: "ye are full, ye are rich, you reign as kings," etc. "we are fools, ye are wise," etc. "we are nothing, you are all." Etc. 

["Ironica est concessio, exprimens Corinthiorum de seipsis corruptam opinionem." Aretius.]"

A sarcasm, which is a biting taunt, is near to an irony, but that it's somewhat more bitter, as Genesis 37:19: “Behold the dreamer comes!” Thus Michal spits out bitter reproaches against David in 2 Samuel 6:20: “How glorious was the king today?” – that is: how contemptible and inglorious? Thus Shimei reviled him in 2 Samuel 16:7. Thus the people taunt at Moses in Exodus 14:11: “Because there were no graves in Egypt, hast thou brought us to die in the wilderness?” Thus the Jews reviled Christ, Matthew 27:29, 42, Luke 4:23 – “they mocked him, saying, Hail King of the Jews;” Nahum 3:14.

Mycterismus, is a kind of scoff, near to the former. Thus the Pharisees derided Christ in Luke 16:14 – they did not simply contemn him, but they showed their contempt of him by their gestures; they blew their noses at him, as the original imports, ἐξεμυκτήριζον, deridebant eum, vel sannis eum excipiebant – Beza.

Metalepsis, when there are many tropes in one word, as Matthew 21:10: “all the city was moved:” “the city” put for Jerusalem, by a synecdoche generis, and “Jerusalem” put for its inhabitants, by a metonymy of the subject. So Malachi 4:2: “wings” put for beams, by a catachrestic metaphor, and “beams” for comfort and refreshing, by a metaphor.

Mimesis, is an imitation of the words of others. Thus David used the words of rebellious rulers in Psalm 2:3: “let us break their bonds asunder,” etc. So Paul uses the words of the Epicureans. 1 Corinthians 15:32 and the prophet speaks in the language of the profane Jews, who made a mockery of God’s word and threatenings in Isaiah 28:13: Manda, remanda, expecta, reexpecta, Tsulazu, Kaw, lakau, Kau lakau, Micah 3:11.

Metaphors are frequent in Scripture, for our apprehension sake. Thus Christ is called a rock, a vine, a lamb, a lion, a shepherd, a door, a way, and a husbandman. So man is called a shadow, a flower, grass, a wolf, bear, and dog (Isaiah 11:6). Thus we read of metaphors from leaven, salt, trees, seed, Bread, etc. besides many hyperbolical metaphors, as Psalm 65:13: “the fields sing;” Habakkuk 2:11: “the stone out of the walls shall cry; Lamentations 1:4: “the ways mourn;” Genesis 4:10: “Thy brother’s blood cries.” He that would see more Scripture metaphors, from seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, etc. let him peruse Peacham’s Rhetoric.

Metonymia: 

(1) Of the efficient cause, thus “Moses” is often put for the writings of Moses. Luke 16.29, 31, and 24.27. John 5.45, 46. Thus “sin” is put for the punishment of sin – Genesis 4:7:  “Sin lieth at the door,” that is: the punishment of sin. So Numbers 32:23: “Your sin will find you out,” that is: the punishment of your sin. Thus John 7:39: “The Holy Ghost was not yet given,” that is: the miraculous and sanctifying gifts of the Holy Ghost, were not so fully given, as they were after Christ’s ascension. So Galatians 3:27: “Ye have put on Christ,” that is: ye are made partakers of his benefits. Psalm 128:2: “Labour,” put for the food gained by the labor of the hands.

(2) A Metonymy of the Subject. Thus by a sacramental metonymy, the Scripture often gives to the sacraments, the names of the things signified by them. Thus circumcision is called “the covenant” (Genesis 17:10). when it was only a seal of the covenant, and the paschal lamb is called “the passover” in Exodus 12:11, and baptism is called “the new birth” (Titus 3:5), and the bread “Christ’s body,” of which it is a sign (Matthew 26:26). So “the cup” is put for the wine in the cup in Luke 22:20, that is: vinum poculo contentum, continens pro re contentâ. Thus “the earth” is put for the men in the earth in Genesis 6:11: “the earth was corrupt.” So “Jerusalem,” “Judea,” and “Samaria,” are put for their inhabitants. So “the house” for the people in the house. Luke 19.9. Salvation is come to thy house, Act. 26.31. Pr. 11.29. Thus “hell” is put for the devils in hell, and “heaven” for God who dwells in heaven – in Luke 15:18: “I have sinned against heaven,” that is: against God who dwells in heaven. So Matthew 21.25. Thus “the days” are put for the men that live in those days in Ephesians 5:16, and “the nest,” for the young ones in the nest in Deuteronomy 32:11: “as an eagle stirreth up her nest, that is: provokes her young ones to fly.” So “the heart” is put for all in the heart, the will, affections, and the whole soul, because the soul keeps its chief residence there, though it be in the whole body, and every part of it. Jeremiah 17:9: “the heart is deceitful,” that is: the soul with all its faculties and affections. So Deuteronomy 30:6, Psalm 4:4, “commune with your heart,” that is: with your soul. Jeremiah 4:14: “wash thy heart,” that is: thy whole soul.

Thus “the gate” is often put for the judges, who (among the Jews) sat in the gate (Matthew 16:18.; 1 Samuel 4:18, and 9:18. Psalm 69:12: so “the tongue” is put for the speech. Proverbs 10:20: “the tongue of the just is as choice silver.” So Proverbs 11:10: “the city rejoiceth,” that is: the men in the city. So 2 Corinthians 4:4: “the end of this world,” that is: of the wicked who live in the world. So 1 Corinthians 11:10: “the woman hath power on her head” that is: she hath a veil or cover, which is a sign of her husband’s power and superiority over her.

3. A Metonymy of the adjunct, thus the governor is often put for his army: “Saul hath slain his thousand.” So Christ is put for his members in Matthew 25:35: “I was hungry, and ye gave me meat, that is: my faithful members.” So Acts 9:4-5: “I am Jesus whom thou persecutest,” that is: whose disciples thou persecutest. Psalm 16:6: “the lines are fallen,” that is: the portion divided to me, by cords of lines (Isaiah 34:17, Psalm 78.55).

Thus the abstract is often put for the concrete. Psalm 11:7: “The righteous Lord loveth righteousness,” that is: righteous men. “Jacob swore by the fear of his father Isaac” (Genesis 31:53) that is: by the Lord, whom Isaac feared. So Ephesians 3:10, Colossians 1:16, and 1 Corinthians 12:28 – “helps” and “governments” for helpers and governors. So circumcision, for the persons circumcised in Galatians 2:12. So Paul is called λοιμὸν in Acts 24:5: not only a pestilent fellow, but the very pestilence and plague itself. Proverbs 11:1 [reads]: “False weights are an abomination,” that is: men that use false weights are abominable. So “the belly” is put for a belly-god in Titus 1:12, and “wickedness” for wicked men in Genesis 19.15. [See more, Rule 36.]

Thus the sign is often put for the thing signified, as, “the scepter” for the kingdom in Genesis 49:10, “the sword” for authority, it being a sign of it in Romans 13:4, and “the keys” for ecclesiastical power in Matthew 16.19. Thus the name is often put for the thing itself. Revelation 3:4: “thou hast a few names,” that is: men professing the truth. Proverbs 18:10: “the name of the Lord,” that is: the Lord himself. Philippians 2:10, Ephesians 5:20, Acts. 1:15.

Thus “the time” itself is put for the thing done in time. 1 Corinthians 4:3: “man’s day,” that is: man’s judgment; “save me from this hour,” that is: from this danger (John 12:27). So Job 32:7, “days should speak,” that is: the aged who have seen many days.

4. A Metonymy of the effect. 2 Kings 4:10: “death is in the pot,” that is: poison or some deadly thing, which causeth death. So Mark 9:17, 25: “a dumb spirit,” that is: making men dumb. Romans 8:6: “to be carnally minded is death,” that is: tendeth to death, or bringeth death. So Romans 6:23 and 7:7: “is the law sin?”, that is: is it the cause of sin? Hebrews 11:39: “they received not the promises,” that is: the fruit of the promises, for they had the promises, but the accomplishment was in the time of the gospel. John 3:19: “this is the condemnation,” that is: a special cause of condemnation. John 17:3: “this is life eternal,” that is: 'tis the way to life eternal. Genesis 25:23: “two nations,” that is: the fathers of two nations. Thus the law is said to be pure, righteous, etc. in Psalm 19:8-9 because it makes men so.

5. A Metonymy of the matter. Genesis 3:19: “Dust thou art, that is: thou art formed out of the dust.” Psalm 105:18: “he was laid in iron,” that is: in setters. Psalm 115:4: “their idols are silver and gold,” that is: made of such metal.

Paranomasia, is a pleasant sound of words, as Psalm 21:7. In te confisi, nunquā confusi. So Isaiah 5:7. in the original, is an excellent paranomasia: Mispal Mispach, Zadaca Zeaca. So Romans 2:1: in quae alium damnas, teipsum condemnas – κρινεις, κατακρινεις. So in the Greek there is an excellent paranomasy. 2 Corinthians 4:8-9: απορουμενοι, εξαπορουμενοι, etc. haesitamus, at non prorsus haeremus. So Matthew 8:22: “Let the dead bury the dead.” 2 Timothy 4:2: ευκαιρως, ακαιρως. So 1 Timothy 3:16, Romans 12:2. Matthew 16:18 and 24:7, Philippians 3:2-3, 19 – see the original – and 2 Corinthians 6:10: “as poor, yet making many rich, as having nothing, and yet possessing all things.” So Bethel shall be Beth-Aven [Amos 5:8]. Psalm 25:16: Gnani ani: afflictus ego, etc. Hosea 4:18: ababu hebu: amant dona.

Periphrasis, is the using of many words for one thing. Thus in John 21:20, “the disciple whom Jesus loved,” that is: John. “The fruit of the vine,” that is: wine. “To lay down this tabernacle,” that is: to die. “The doctor of the Gentiles,” that is: Paul. “The father of lying and murder,” that is: the devil. So death is called the “going the way of all the earth,” because none can escape it: and Solomon calls it our long home, etc.

Pleonasmus, the most wise God condescending to our rude and weak capacity, often uses sacred Pleonasmes for the better clearing of things to our understanding, and beating them into our dull apprehensions. So Deuteronomy 13:4 – those inculcations are not vain, but serve to work things the better upon our hard hearts. So Deuteronomy 32:6. “O foolish people and unwise.” 1 John 1:1: “we have seen with our eyes,” etc. John 1:3. and 6:33, 34, 35. Matthew 5:2, etc. Christ calls himself seven times there the bread of life. The Psalms are full of such pleonastic inculcations. The Scripture is often exegetical: what it speaks darkly in one place, it explains in another.

Polyptoton, is a variation of cases, as Romans 11:36: “of him, from him, to him,” etc. See also – John 17:25, 2 Corinthians 12:14, and Luke 8:5.

Polysyndeton, when words and sentences are knit together, with many copulatives, as 1 Corinthians 13:1-3: “and though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge,” etc. So Galatians 4:10 and Romans 8:38-39.

Prolepsis, or Hypophora, is the prevention of an objection, as Proverbs 3.9. “Honor the Lord with thy riches.” Ob. So I may beggar myself: he prevents this objection, so shall thy barns be filled. So Matthew 6.33. first seek spirituals, above and before temporals. Ob. So I may impair my wealth, health, etc. He prevents this, all these things shall be cast as an over-plus into the bargain. So John 11.2. [See more, Rule 27.]

Prosopopaeia: The feigning of a person, as when we bring in the inanimate creatures, speaking or hearing, etc. So 1 Kings 13.2. O altar, altar, thus saith the Lord: he speaks to the altar, as if it were a person that heard him. Psalm 98:7-8: “Let the sea roar, and the floods clap their hands, and the hills rejoice.” In Romans 8:19-21, the apostle brings in the creature waiting, groaning, and traveling. So in Isaiah 35:1-2, he attributes joy and singing to the wilderness. See a most lively, rhetorical, prosopopeical description of the terrible army of the Babylonians in Joel 2.1.10 12. So Joshua 24:27: “This stone shall be a witness, for it hath heard all the words of the Lord.” Isaiah 1:2 “Hear O heavens,” etc. In Judges 9:8, Jotham brings in the trees, speaking like men. The olive will not leave his fatness, nor the fig tree his sweetness, nor the vine his wine, to reign over others; but tis the bramble, that affects sovereignty and dominion, a base, scratching, worthless, fruitless shrub, good for nothing but to stop gaps, and keep out beasts, from spoiling the pleasant fields, and afterward to be burnt.  Rhamnus exilis est, unde vix umbram jacit quae protegar, ac sub se delitescentes pungit & stimulat. (à Lapide)

Synecdoche generis, when a general word comprehends the particular. Mark 16:15: “Go preach the gospel to every creature” – that is: to every rational creature. Psalm 1:6. “The Lord knows the way of the righteous” – namely: with a knowledge of favor and approbation. So Amos 8:14: “they swear by the sin of Samaria,” that is: by the idol that is placed there, that is: the golden calves. Thus “wickedness” is put for idolatry in Zechariah 5.8, and for incest in Leviticus 20.19. Thus “the Philistine” is put for Goliath, “the apostle” for Paul, and “our Savior” for Christ. Matthew 11:18: “John came neither eating nor drinking,” namely: after the common manner. Genesis 31:21: “Jacob fled over the river,” that is: Euphrates. Psalm 19:7: “The law of the Lord,” that is: the whole word of God. 1 Corinthians 6.12. all things are lawful, that is: all adiaphorous things. Jeremiah 8.6. no man, that is: very few.

Thus the whole is often put for a part, as Matthew 3.5. all Judea went forth, that is: a great part. So 1 Kings 10:24: “all the earth went to hear the wisdom of Solomon.” Matthew 4:23: “he healed all diseases,” that is: all sorts of diseases presented to his cure. Luke 2:1: “all the world was taxed,” that is: all the provinces belonging to Augustus. 1 Timothy 2:3: “Who will have all men to be saved,” etc., that is: all the elect, of whatsoever nation or degree. Romans 10:12: “God is rich to all,” that is: to all that truly call upon him. Hebrews 2:9: “he tasted death for every man,” that is: for every sanctified man (verse 10). All in Scripture, is often taken distributively, for some of all sorts, not collectively for the whole mass of mankind. The ignorance of this distinction is the ground of many errors amongst us.

Thus the plural number is put for the singular, as Matthew 27:44: “the thieves,” that is: one of the thieves upbraided him.

2. Synecdoche speciei, when a particular implies the general, Matthew 4:4. and 6:11, “bread,” that is: all kind of food. So Genesis 3:19. Thus peace is often put for all temporal blessings. So a brother is put for a kinsman in Matthew 12:47: “thy brethren are without,” that is: thy kinsmen Caesar for the chief magistrate (Matthew 22:21).

Thus a part is put for the whole, Romans 13:1: “Let every soul,” that is: let every man be subject. So “the roof” is put for the house in Matthew 8:8. So Genesis 46:26: “all the souls that came out of Egypt.” Ezekiel 18: “the soul that sins.” So “the body” is put for the whole man in Romans 12:1. Thus “prayer” is oft put synecdochically for the whole worship of God. Luke 18:20: “Two men went up to the temple to pray,” that is: to worship God. So Romans 10:12-13, Joel 2:32, Acts 2:21, Genesis 4:26 and 12:8 – firstly, because it is a special part of God’s worship, very pleasing to him. Secondly, because prayer must accompany every ordinance, Luke 18:12: “I fast twice in the sabbath,” that is: in the week. Thus often the denomination is given from the better part; as “Zion” for all Jerusalem, and “Jerusalem” for all Judah.

Thus the fear of the Lord is often put for the worship of God: Proverbs 14:26, Psalm 130:4, Deuteronomy 6:13, Acts 10:35, Psalm 128:1, and 112:1.

Thus the hand is put for the whole man in Proverbs 10:4, and the head for the whole man in Proverbs 11:26. “Blessing shall be upon the head of,” etc. Proverbs 3:22: “grace to thy neck,” that is: to thy whole man.

Thus the singular number is put for the plural. Jeremiah 8:7: The stork knows her time, that is: the storks. Numbers 6.24, 22: “the Kenite,” that is: the Kenites shall be wasted. Job 14:1: “Man,” that is: all men have but a short time.

Thus a certain number is put for an uncertain. Zechariah 3.9. Christ is said to have seven eyes, that is: many, to signify his singular care over his Church. So Revelation 1:20 and 5:6. Deuteronomy 28:7, 25: “Fly seven ways,” that is: many ways. Psalm 12:6, Job 5:19, Psalm 119:164: “seven times a day;” Proverbs 24:16: “the righteous falleth seven times a day,” that is: often; Ecclesiastes 11:2, 9; Matthew 12:45: “seven other spirits,” etc. If any desire to see these tropes and figures more fully explained, let him peruse the learned, Glassius’ Philologia, the second part.

FINIS.